Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum

Beyond Borders: Unraveling the Sacred Pure Land Jingbian in the Dunhuang Caves Exhibition

Text by Jeanne H. Tuan

When discussing Dunhuang art in the context of Chinese Buddhist art history, the term ‘jingbian’ (經變) is often used.  The term ‘jing’ (經) refers to Buddhist scriptures, while ‘bian’ (變) means "a painting" (Karashima, 2016).  Literally translated, ‘jingbian’ means a painting or pictures from (the theme of) a scripture.  Therefore, ‘jingbian’ signifies a visual representation that portrays the content of Buddhist scriptures.  In short, ‘jingbian’ refers to artistic drawings or narrative murals that illustrate Buddhist sutras or scriptures.

Jingbian paintings, also called sutra illustrations, gained popularity during the Northern Wei dynasty from 386 to 535 CE. These paintings were created to help people understand Buddhist teachings. The artists who made them depicted themes from Buddhist scriptures to help monks and followers meditate and reflect. Jingbian paintings played a significant role in spreading Buddhism by making the teachings more accessible.

The theme of Pure Lands is an important aspect of Buddhism and is also beautifully depicted in Jingbian paintings. This unique realm of a pure land is believed to offer the perfect environment for spiritual growth and is a place where individuals can be reborn after death. In this sacred space, practitioners can learn from a Buddha's guidance and work towards achieving enlightenment. Due to the perceived difficulty of attaining enlightenment in the present corrupted age or Saha world, many Mahayana Buddhists aspire to be reborn in these specially prepared pure lands to facilitate their spiritual journey.  The Dunhuang Caves in Gansu, China, house a remarkable collection of 440 Jingbian paintings, all centered around the Pure Lands. These paintings showcase the rich Buddhist artistic and spiritual heritage and are a testament to the beauty and power of this tradition.

The "Silk Road Splendor: Dunhuang Caves Art Exhibition" is currently in full swing at the Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum. This exhibition highlights the history of Buddhism along the Overland Silk Road and its cultural significance. It features ancient artifacts from the Dunhuang Caves, which have been around for over a thousand years. One of the main attractions in this exhibition includes large-scale Pure Land Jingbian paintings.

The Pure Land Jingbian paintings portray Amitabha's Sukhavati (i.e., the Western Pure Land), the Medicine Buddha's Pure Land of Vaiduryanirbhasa (i.e., the Lapis Lazuli Pure Land), and the Jambudvipa world after Maitreya's descent from Tushida (i.e., the Heavenly Joy Pure Land). This article provides an overview of these paintings, explaining their visual narratives, themes, and symbolism. The goal is to help the audience better appreciate this cultural heritage's artistic intricacies and spiritual depth.

Lapis Lazuli Pure Land: The Medicine Buddha's Realm of Vaiduryanirbhasa

The Pure Land exhibits feature Jianbian paintings depicting a Buddhist realm. These paintings can be found in Dunhuang's cave temples, which are famous for their exquisite artwork. Particularly abundant are the Jianbian murals based on the Medicine Buddha Sutra, depicting the Eastern Pure Land of Lapis Lazuli, totaling an impressive ninety-seven paintings.

Mogao Cave 220, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is also known as the 'Caves of the Thousand Buddhas.'  It was a grotto first found with its walls adorned with motifs of a thousand Buddhas from the Western Xia or Tangut Empire during the 12th century. However, in 1948, the peeling of the surface layer, revealing the magnificent and well-preserved jingbian paintings beneath, brought the dormant Tang Dynasty murals to life.

Figure 1. Jianbian Mural of the Seven Medicine Buddhas, main chamber, north wall, Mogao Cave 220, Early Tang Dynasty (mid-7th Century), Dunhuang.

The composition of this mural on the north wall features seven Buddha statues placed on a pedestal in the center. Adorned with exquisite canopies above, each Buddha statue has accompanying bodhisattvas as retinues. This artwork draws inspiration from the Sutra of the Medicine Buddha's Fundamental Vows (Fo Shuo Yaoshi rulai benyuan jing), translated by Reverend Dharmagupta (?-619) in the Sui Dynasty (616 CE.)  Dharmagutpa's translation describes the Medicine Buddha through seven avatars, which is also depicted in the mural on the north wall of Cave 220. This depiction adheres to the principles outlined in Dharmagutpa's work. At the center of the mural, the Seven Medicine Buddhas are shown on lotus pedestals, surrounded by eight revered Bodhisattvas as their retinue. The central stage, made from rich red and blue lapis lazuli, adds to the grandeur of the scene. Bodhisattvas are seen leaning along the fence, offering lotus flowers as homage to the Buddha.

Next to the stage, there are many divine beings and celestial attendants present. Above them, you can see six-armed Asuras with three faces, while below are guardians and Vajra warriors. These vigilant defenders wear regal armor and crowns adorned with animal motifs that represent the twelve zodiac signs, such as snakes, dragons, and rabbits. These twelve animal motifs are in line with the description of the twelve Yaksha Generals in the scripture. The scene is a picturesque representation of the Eastern Pure Lapis Lazuli World showcased in the sutra. Several attendants in the scene represent the Eight Guiding Bodhisattvas, Twelve Yakshas, and Vajra warriors mentioned in the sacred text.

In the front of the scene, there are Chinese-style lamp towers and Western-style lamp wheels that brighten up a lively music and dance show. On either side of the stage, two bands of 28 skilled musicians play various instruments, creating a symphony of harmonious melodies. Two pairs of dancers further enhance the show. One pair features elegant dancers swirling scarves amidst flowing locks, while the other performs a spirited "hu xuan wu" or Sogdian whirl dance, known for its rapid rotations and lively movements. 

As Sha Wutian (沙武田) claims (2016), the three large lamp towers or wheels in this mural represent the lively lantern festival of Chang'an during the Tang dynasty. These festivals, filled with music, dance, and elaborate lighting, weren't just exclusive to the emperor's court or elite banquets. They were cherished communal celebrations. Through Dunhuang murals, snapshots of the past, we gain valuable insights into everyday life in the Tang capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang. This highlights the importance of Dunhuang visuals in studying history.

Amitabha Buddha’s Sukhavati: A Pure Land in the Western Realm

On the South Wall of Mogao Cave 220, a narrative mural depicts the Western Pure Land, which is opposite to the Jianbian of the Eastern Lapis Lazuli Pure Land.  The Jianbian mural, inspired by the Shorter Sukhavativyuha Sutra, also known as the Sutra of Amitabha, illustrates the Western Pure Land. 

 

Figure 2.  Jianbian Mural of the Western Pure Land based on the Amitabha Buddha Sutra, main chamber, South wall, Mogao Cave 220, Early Tang Dynasty (mid-7th Century), Dunhuang.

The narrative mural is divided into three parts. The lower part of the mural represents the earth, the middle part shows a water realm, and the upper part signifies the sky. In the center of the mural, Amitabha Buddha sits on a lotus with Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattvas by his side. Above them, banners with sutra texts hang, while a colorful palace rises high. Around them, over 150 heavenly beings stand in a clear hierarchy, with a backdrop of pavilions, golden sands, lapis lazuli decorations, and fragrant flowers. In the central section, musicians play while dancers perform, creating a joyous atmosphere. This music and dance theme is a recurring motif in depictions of the Pure Land, echoing the serene ambiance described in the Amitabha Sutra.

In that Buddha land heavenly music is played continually.

The ground is made of gold. Six times during the day and night māndārava flowers rain down from the sky.

彼佛國土，常作天樂，黃金為地，晝夜六時天雨曼陀羅華.

[T12n0366_001 0347a07《大正藏》第12冊，第347頁; in English, Pure Land, 2003, p. 91]

In Buddhism, only a few learned monastics who have studied the scriptures can understand them just by a quick glance.  Most regular people's knowledge, especially those who cannot read, depends on the guidance of the monastics.  To explain the teachings of certain sutras to such people, the monastics used visual representations like narrative murals.  Creating narrative murals based on Buddhist scriptures dates back to the Western Wei period.  Cave 127 of the Maijishan Grottoes in Tianshui provides evidence of this.  In the mid-Sui Dynasty, the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang presented small-scale sutra Jianbian. These depicted individual sections, several sections from a single sutra, or scenes representing the core concepts of specific sutras.  The capital of the Western Wei and Sui Dynasties, Chang'an, appears to have mastered mural paintings to convey Buddhist scriptures, dating back to at least the Western Wei period (535-557 CE).  Subsequently, these early sutra Jianbian or narrative murals became prevalent in the western regions of Chang'an.

During the Tang Dynasty, in the capital city of Chang'an, Buddhist temples played a crucial role in spreading and formalizing Buddhist teachings to devoted followers. As we know, there are a vast number of Buddhist scriptures with intricate content, which can be dry and challenging for the average believer to understand. To make it more approachable and easy to understand, Buddhist monks used to incorporate stories in their teachings to enrich the narrative. This method was known as 'popular sermons' and became popular within the temple environment to propagate Buddhism effectively.

The term "common preaching" refers to the practice of explaining Buddhist scriptures using popular stories. To make the meaning of these complex scriptures easy to understand for the general public, a pre-written original text called the "variant text" is prepared before starting common preaching. Many variant texts of this kind have been discovered in ancient documents found in the Dunhuang Caves.

Figure 3.  Jingbian Mural of the Western Pure Land based on Amitayurdhyana, North Wall, Mogao Cave 172, Dunhuang, High Tang Dynasty (626-756 CE.)

In the preceding sections, the paintings within Mogao Cave 220, originating from around the mid-7th century, depict scenes from both the Western Pure Land and the Eastern Lapis Lazuli Pure Land. By the time of the High Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), the method of presenting these scenes had become renowned for their intricate designs. The north and south walls of Mogao Cave 172 display iconic and expansive-scale Jingbian murals, illustrating scenes from the Western Pure Land as described in The Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra or the Contemplation Sutra (Fóshuōguānwúliàngshòufójīng). These remarkable artworks trace back to the High Tang Dynasty. Particularly noteworthy is the replica of the narrative murals on the north wall, prominently featured in the 'Silk Road Splendor: Dunhuang Caves Art Exhibition,' which leaves a lasting impact on viewers, enticing them to linger and immerse themselves in its magnificence.

The architectural depiction of the Western Pure Land is adorned with intricately carved beams and painted rafters, complemented by magnificent towers and pavilions that radiate resplendently in gold and jade. While this stylistic approach may not strictly adhere to scientific rules of perspective, the strategic use of different angles effectively draws attention to the center, imparting a sense of realism to the scene. As noted by Shih Ping-ting (2002), a scholar in Dunhuang Studies, the skilled artisans of the 8th century utilized a clever combination of upward, straight, and downward angles to guide the viewer's gaze toward the upper part of the central axis. This technique creates a perspective effect that enhances the artwork's familiarity and immersive quality for the audience. Furthermore, the arrangement of buildings contributes to the overall impressive aesthetic. Additionally, the inclusion of heavenly figures and Buddhas in the paintings adds a sense of rhythm, with the four flying Apsaras standing out as exemplary examples of this art within the Mogao Caves.

Audiences marveled as the beautiful "Western Pure Land" unfolded before them. They witness misty lakes adorned with preaching gatherings, platforms, and pavilions. In the distance, a grand river descends from the sky, its powerful waves flowing towards the Blissful World, creating an engaging focal point amidst the undulating waters. The pond, teeming with life, features mandarin ducks frolicking amidst green leaves and flowers while celestial children find repose upon the petals. The scene is breathtaking as peacocks display their majestic tails and white cranes elegantly sway their heads. Jīvajīvaka, the legendary two-headed bird from the Snow Mountains, sings in perfect harmony. Kalavinka, the mythical creature with a human head, bird's torso, and flowing tail, dances to the accompanying music. These enchanting moments vividly portray the Western Pure Land as described in the sutra, reflecting the verse: "where the melodious tunes of different bird flocks sing day and night, forming an awe-inspiring symphony of natural sounds." (“是諸眾鳥,晝夜六時出和雅音”)

On the western side of the Jianbian mural, a comic strip narrative unfolds, illustrating the deep-seated grudges harbored by Prince Ajatashatru against his parents, King Bimbisara and Queen Vaidehi, as taught in Buddhist teachings. Conversely, on the eastern side, a vertical scroll portrays scenes depicting the sixteen special contemplations leading to the Western Pure Land.  In its entirety, the complex structure and vibrant colors of these Jingbian murals highlight the magnificent achievements of Tang Dynasty art, inviting viewers to immerse themselves in the beauty and spirituality of the depicted Pure Land.

The Jambudvipa World in The Post-Maitreya Descent Era

The "Silk Road Splendor" exhibition at the Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum presents yet another remarkable and significant artwork: the Descent of Maitreya (Figure 4). This piece portrays a future envisioned in Buddhist belief, depicting Maitreya's arrival in Jambudvipa, symbolizing a time of great significance and anticipation.  In Buddhist cosmology, Jambudvipa symbolizes the earthly realm, inhabited by humans. Within this realm depicted on a Buddhist cosmic map, Maitreya, the Buddha prophesied to lead the next era, disseminates his teachings, potentially catalyzing a new epoch of enlightenment and peace among humanity. This concept often symbolizes hope for a better future and the eventual realization of Buddhist ideals. This masterpiece, Descent of Maitreya, holds a special place, strategically positioned across from the Jianbian Mural of the Seven Medicine Buddhas in Gallery 1. Its artistic portrayal is deeply rooted in The Sutra on the Descent of Maitreya, a canonical text that prophesies Maitreya's future role as the successor to Shakyamuni Buddha.

Figure 4.  Jingbian Mural of the Descent of Maitreya based on The Sutra on the Descent of Maitreya, North Wall, Yulin Cave 25, Dunhuang, Mid Tang Dynasty (712-805 CE.)

As per the Agama Sutra, the first Buddhist scripture, the arrival of Maitreya heralds a profound transformation. The landscape is depicted as uniformly level and adorned with seven precious jewels, accompanied by the fragrant scent of flowers. The inhabitants of this envisioned world are characterized by their benevolent nature, with their lifespan extending to an extraordinary 84,000 years, and women typically marrying at the age of 500. This portrayal is sure to inspire awe and anticipation in our visitors.

Maitreya's enlightenment is portrayed as occurring beneath the naga-puspa tree, commonly identified as the Alexandrian laurel or Sri Lankan ironwood. This leads to the convening of three assemblies, each resulting in the liberation of millions of individuals. The mural prominently features scenes from these pivotal discourses, with the first sermon being a central focal point and flanked by attendant Bodhisattvas and the Aṣṭasenā (the Eight Legions of Devas and Nagas) (Figure 5), the dharma protectors. 

Figure 5.  Aṣṭasenā Details in Jingbian Mural of the Descent of Maitreya based on The Sutra on the Descent of Maitreya, North Wall, Yulin Cave 25, Dunhuang, Mid Tang Dynasty (712-805 CE.)

Subsequent compositions within the mural depict various episodes occurring in the post-Maitreya descent era within the Jambudvipa world. Offerings of Saptaratna (Seven Treasures) surround the altar at Maitreya's feet, symbolizing abundance and prosperity (Figure 6). Vignettes on either side of the mural depict preparations for Maitreya's arrival, including poignant scenes such as an elderly disciple's voluntary acceptance of mortality and farmers reaping bountiful harvests. Above, the Buddha ceremoniously transfers the kasaya garment to Mahakasyapa, renowned for his ascetic lifestyle.  The mural intricately captures these narrative motifs through vibrant colors and meticulous detail, rendering it an exemplary specimen among the Dunhuang murals.

Figure 6.  Treasures offered by Sankha, a cakravartin king, and protected by dragons. Details of Jingbian Mural of the Descent of Maitreya based on The Sutra on the Descent of Maitreya, North Wall, Yulin Cave 25, Dunhuang, Mid Tang Dynasty (712-805 CE.)

In the exploration of the Pure Land Jingbian within the Dunhuang Mogao Cave Murals, we uncover not only the artistic brilliance but also the profound spiritual essence woven into these ancient creations. Originating during the Northern Wei dynasty and flourishing in the Tang dynasty, Jingbian paintings served as visual aids to illuminate Buddhist scriptures, bridging comprehension for a broader audience. Through intricate depictions of Pure Lands like Amitabha's Sukhavati and Maitreya's descent to Jambudvipa, these murals manifest the aspirational core of Buddhist faith, offering visions of enlightenment and tranquility. With meticulous detail and vibrant hues, these artworks transport beholders to realms of spiritual serenity, narrating tales of compassion and transcendence. As we delve into the cultural reservoirs preserved within the Dunhuang Caves, we're reminded of the enduring legacy of Buddhist art, perpetually inspiring and elevating the human spirit across epochs.

Works Cited

Chang Zhenyang (張振陽) & Chen Qiuxiang (陳秋香),  Desert Pearl Dunhuang 沙漠明珠敦煌. Taipei City: Geographical Publishing Co., Ltd. 台北市：大地地理出版事業有限公司, 1999.

Fan Jinshi (樊錦詩) & Zhao Shengliang (趙聲良). (Eds.) Duhuang Art Dictionary (敦煌藝術大辭典)，Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House 上海辭書出版社, 2020.
Karashima, Seishi  Meanings Of Bian 變, Bianxiang 變相 and Bianwen 變文, Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka Universityソウカ ダイガク コクサイ ブッキョウガク コウトウ ケンキュウジョ ネンポウ.  2016: 257 - 278

Lin Baoyao (林保堯) (Ed.) The Art Illustrative Records of Thungwang 《敦煌藝術圖典》, Taipei City: Artist 臺北市：藝術家。1991.

Sha Wutian (沙武田).  The Three Pure Land Sutras, tr. Hisao Inagaki. Rev. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2013.

Sha Wutian (沙武田). “Tangyun hufeng̶Mogaoku di 220 ku wudaotu yu Chang’an fengqi 唐韻胡風——莫高窟第220窟舞蹈圖與長安風氣” [The dance scene in Mogao Cave 220 and fashions in Chang’an]. Shaanxi lishi bowuguan guankan 陝西歷史博物館館刊 [Bulletin of the Shaanxi History Museum] 20.  2013: 189-205.

Sha Wutian (沙武田) Translation: An Image of Nighttime Music and Dance in Tang Chang’an: Notes on the Lighting Devices in the Medicine Buddha Transformation Tableau in Mogao Cave 220, Dunhuang. In: The Silk Road. 2016: 19-41.

Shi Pingting 施萍婷, “Yaoshi jingbian 藥師經變” [Medicine Buddha sutra painting]. In: Dunhuangxu dacidian 1998: 125-28.

Tainan National University of Arts (國立台南藝術大學) (Eds.) From the Forgotten Deserts: Centuries of Dazzling Dunhuang Art (敦煌藝術大展-荒漠傳奇.璀璨再現)  Tainan: Tainan National University of Arts 國立台南藝術大學出版，2005.