Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum

Unlocking Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva's Gender: Male or Female
Text | Jeanne H. Tuan 

As you approach the entrance of the Museum of the Buddhist Underground Palaces at the Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum, get ready to be amazed by a truly visual spectacle. It's a statue of a serene and majestic man sitting in a relaxed or royal ease pose. One of his arms supports his leaning position, while the other hand gracefully makes a gesture or a Mudra. He wears a high topknot hairstyle and a flowing silk robe that sways gently in the breeze. His gaze is intense and focused downward, making you wonder, "Who is he?" or "What is he looking at?"


Picture 1: Seated Bodhisattva at Fo Guang Shan Museum of Buddhist Underground Palaces, dating from Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE)

If you look closer, you'll notice that the statue in front of you represents Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva in a distinctive form known as Water Moon or Shuiyue Guanyin. The Bodhisattva's gaze is fixed on the serene reflection of the moon in the water, giving a sense of peace and calmness. In Picture 2, which is from the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea, there's a painting showing Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with a noticeable mustache, highlighting a noble and dignified appearance often associated with male figures. However, to better understand Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva's gender, we can refer to the Buddhist sutras. In the Avatamsaka Sutra, an important Mahayana scripture predating the Lotus Sutra, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva is initially depicted as a male figure when the main character Sudhana sets out on a journey to find enlightenment and encounters various enlightened beings.  The artwork (shown in Picture 3) invites us to observe the scene where Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, Sudhana, and the Naga Girl come together. Avalokitesvara, sitting in the middle, is the focal point, while Sudhana and the Naga Girl stand as supportive figures by their side. Meanwhile, you might assume that Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, also known as Guanyin, is portrayed as a male figure with distinct masculine characteristics.


Picture 2: Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara, Korea, Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), ink and color on silk. The Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University Art Museum, USA.


Picture 3: Thousand-armed, thousand-eyed Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with Sudhana and the Naga Girl at the Mount Potalaka Avalokitesvara Shrine of theFo Guang Shan Buddha Museum.

As you explore the Mount Potalaka Avalokitesvara Shrine and look at the thirty-three images of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva on the walls, you can't help but be fascinated by their beauty and feminine qualities. But here's the exciting part: Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva's gender isn't always easy to figure out. It's a bit like the story of "Glen or Glenda," where things aren't male or female. So, you might wonder: Is Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva a male or female deity? As you continue your journey through the shrine, this question keeps coming to mind. But don't worry. We'll soon learn about Buddhism's arrival in China and discover how people's ideas about Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva's gender have changed over time.  Let's explore two critical paths that Buddhism took from India to China: the Silk Road Overland Route and Maritime Silk Road Route.


Picture 4: Thirty-three avatars of Avalokitesvara at the Mount Potalaka Avalokitesvara Shrine of the Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum.


Picture 5: Bronze Male-Form Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, Song dynasty (the 10th – 15th century), Soto Asia Art.

Silk Road Overland Route

The Silk Road Overland Route, marked in red in Picture 6, played a crucial role in the early spread of Buddhism to China. These routes involved traveling through mountainous regions in Central Asia, like Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Xinjiang in China. After that, they connected to the well-known Silk Roads, which were trade routes used by caravans. Along these paths, the trade routes passed through the Tarim Basin and the Taklamakan Desert, eventually leading to Chang'An, the capital of several dynasties in China. These routes became channels for sharing ideas, goods, and religions, including Buddhism. Buddhist monks and scholars played a significant role in spreading Buddhism to China. They carried important scriptures, teachings, and artifacts eastwards during their frequent travels along these routes. Their journeys contributed to the growth and development of Buddhism in China.


Picture 6: Expansion of Buddhism, originated from India in the 6th century BCE to the rest of Asia until present. Reproduced from: https://en.imsilkroad.com/p/314371.html

During the initial phase of Buddhism's introduction to China, artistic representations in paintings and sculptures depicted Avalokitesvara as a male Bodhisattva. These artworks emerged during the reign of the Kushan Empire, a vast empire spanning Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent in the second century.  However, as the years went by, especially during the Sui and Tang dynasties (which lasted from the 6th to the 10th centuries), Avalokiteśvara underwent a significant change and started being portrayed as a female. By the end of the Song dynasty, Avalokiteśvara had completely transformed into a female form, taking on the appearance and qualities of a Chinese female goddess. It is rare to come across ancient artworks from the Song dynasty that shows Avalokiteśvara as a male Bodhisattva.

There could be two reasons why Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva’s gender changed a lot.  For one thing, people started showing Avalokiteśvara as a female around the 6th Century.  The shift from a man to a woman happened because, in Chinese culture, being female is linked to kind and selfless gods.  For instance, Nüwa, a goddess in Chinese stories, created humans.  She is often depicted as a deity with a serpent body and is known for fixing the heavens and earth to save human beings.  Another example is Xi Wangmu, also called the Queen Mother of the West, a powerful goddess associated with immortality, fertility, and ruling over the celestial realm.

For another, a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism, Tara, who shares qualities like wisdom, protection, and fearlessness with Avalokiteśvara, has debuted in the 5th Century.  According to the beliefs, Tara is said to have emerged from the tears shed by Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva. When we look at depictions of Tara, like in Picture 7, we often see her portrayed with a graceful S-shaped body that highlights her femininity. This elegant curve represents her fluidity and agility, symbolizing the dynamic and compassionate nature she embodies. People often portray Tara as a merciful goddess and savior who quickly comes to the aid of those in distress. The integration of Tara's qualities into Avalokiteśvara has had a significant impact, shaping how people perceive Avalokiteśvara and even leading to reconsideration and transformation of the deity's gender.


Picture 7: Statue of Tara, Sri Lanka, the 8th century, Gilded Bronze, British Museum.


Picture 8: Avalokiteshvara (right) and Tara (left), Kurkihar, Bihar, India, the 9th-12th century, Bronze. Bihar Museum

Chinese Buddhism became increasingly popular during the Jin to Tang period (5th to 10th centuries CE). "Guanshiyin" became a household name ever since. The term "Guanshiyin" is believed to be a literal translation of the Sanskrit term "Avalokitesvara," which refers to the enlightened lord who gazed upon all sentient beings with tremendous compassion. As Buddhism thrived in China, the name "Guanshiyin" underwent linguistic changes and was clipped into "Guanyin," which has become the commonly used term for this all-seeing, all-hearing deity.  Across the years, Guanyin became one of the most widely revered figures in Chinese Buddhism and the source of inspiration and devotion for Buddhists for centuries.  In the meantime, creating images of Avalokitesvara based on stories and teachings from Buddhist texts in India became popular.  The devotion to Guanyin Boddhisattva reached its peak during the Tang and Song Dynasties, as best described in a Chinese proverb, which says: "Within each home, there is Amitabha Buddha; under each roof, there is Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva." This widespread reverence caused a sensation throughout the country.

What's truly fascinating is how these statues transformed over time. As the years went by, artists started depicting Avalokitesvara as a female figure, resembling the Chinese Han women, rather than describing features influenced by South Asia. The compassionate lady in Picture 9, adorned with exquisite jewels and in luxurious silks, gazes kindly upon the suffering beings she has vowed to help.  This transformation occurred because Avalokitesvara blended with Tara and local Chinese beliefs and traditions. These changes in the image appearance reflected the distinct characteristics and artistic preferences of each era. That's why we can observe unique artistic styles when we examine Guanyin statues from different periods.


Picture 9: Guanyin.  Cave #57, 618-704 CE, Early Tang Dynasty, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang

Maritime Silk Road Route

Buddhism spread to South, Southeast, and East Asia through the vast network of the Maritime Silk Road, marked in blue in Picture 6. This ancient trade route, formed in the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 CE), linked diverse countries through maritime trade and fostered rich cultural exchanges. Along this route, Buddhism, among other cultural and religious ideas, journeyed from its origins in India and other parts of South Asia, Sri Lanka, Mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Island Southeast Asia for Java), and East China.

As Buddhism spread through maritime trade routes, sailors and communities living along the coast held Avalokitesvara highly regarded as a compassionate and protective deity. They believed that Avalokitesvara had the power to keep them safe during their dangerous and unpredictable voyages. The Universal Gate Chapter of the Lotus Sutra highlights Avalokitesvara's role in safeguarding travelers, stating, "If you ever find yourself lost in the vast ocean and threatened by dragons, fish, and demons, remember the might of Avalokitesvara. The waves will not engulf you." This quote emphasizes Avalokitesvara's vital role as a revered guardian for those who relied on the sea for their livelihoods.  The depiction of Avalokitesvara also underwent considerable changes. Initially, the Bodhisattva was portrayed as a male figure with artistic influences from South Asia. For example, in Picture 10, the figure is depicted with incredible grace. The pose is a style of royal ease, "Lalitasana" or "Rajalilasana," while the right hand displays the "katakahasta mudra" gesture. This mudra is significant as it represents protection for the observer, wisdom, and the granting of blessings.


Picture 10: Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, the 9th century CE, gilt bronze, National Museum of Sri Lanka.

However, the depiction of Avalokitesvara in Southeast and East Asia combines local artistic traditions and beliefs.  It is remarkable to observe how Avalokitesvara surpasses traditional gender boundaries and manifests as both male and female to assist all living beings.  In the Khmer and Thailand Buddhist traditions, Avalokitesvara is depicted with multiple arms to show immense compassion.  Pictures 11 and 12 illustrate those bronze statues of Avalokitesvara holding a lotus flower and a rosary in two arms, while two additional hands have objects symbolizing female deities. This portrayal encompasses characteristics from both genders, appearing in diverse forms to help everyone, regardless of gender.  It is truly inspiring to witness how Buddhism adapts and evolves in different regions while staying faithful to its core principles.


Picture 11: Kmer Bronze Four-Armed Avalokiteshvara, Angkor period (the first quarter of the 11th century), Personal Collection


Picture 12: Bronze Four-Armed Avalokiteshvara (the Bodhisattva Infinite Compassion), the 7th-8th Century, Peninsular Thailand, Fletcher and Pfeiffer Funds.

As Buddhism expanded throughout East Asia, Avalokitesvara went through further transformations to correspond with the cultural norms of the region. In China, Avalokitesvara transformed into Guanyin, a female bodhisattva widely celebrated for her exceptional benevolence and kindness. This change was heavily influenced by the integration of Avalokitesvara with Mazu, a local Chinese deity known as the Goddess of the Sea and protector of seafarers and fishermen. Gradually, the worship of Guanyin and Mazu became intertwined, particularly in coastal areas of China. Today, Guanyin holds great significance in Eastern religions, particularly in Chinese folk religion.  She is famously known as the Mercy Goddess, and in East Asia, she embodies the essence of Avalokiteśvara.  Jesuit missionaries in China referred to her as the "Goddess of Mercy," but her real name, Guanshiyin, conveys her ability to perceive the sounds of the world.  This name is a testament to her empathetic nature and capacity to listen and respond to the needs and suffering of all beings.  Mount Putuo (Putuoshan Mountain) (as shown in Picture 13) is considered one of the Four Sacred Mountains in Chinese Buddhism and the dwelling place of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, known as Guanyin in Chinese.  It is a revered site where people gather to honor and seek guidance from the intermingling of two significant deities, Avalokitesvara and Mazu. Visitors to the mountain show their respect to Avalokitesvara, seeking blessings, inner peace, and spiritual enlightenment. Simultaneously, they find solace and a sense of security in the protective presence of Mazu. Mount Putuo is a cherished destination for those searching for spiritual connection, tranquility, and divine inspiration from these revered deities.


Picture 13: Guanyin (Avalokitesvara, the Goddess of Mercy), Mount Putuo, China

In Picture 14, we see a towering six-meter-high statue of Guanyin, portrayed in white.  This magnificent statue resides in the Great Compassion Shrine of Fo Guang Shan Monastery.  Guanyin is regarded as a maternal figure for followers and devotees, representing boundless compassion and offering salvation to all beings.


Picture 14: Standing Avalokitesvara (Guanyin) Bodhisattva in the Great Compassion Shrine of Fo Guang Shan Monastery, Taiwan

The portrayal of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva in different genders shows how Buddhism embraces and adapts to diverse cultures. By going beyond gender stereotypes, Buddhism encourages us to develop qualities that lead to freedom from suffering. This message is universal and applies to all cultures. Understanding the connection between religion and culture gives us a deeper appreciation for the diverse range of human experiences. It teaches us to appreciate diversity and the positive impact of cultural assimilation on our spiritual paths.